Welcome to Stuff You Missed in History Class, a production of iHeartRadio.

Welcome to Stuff You Missed in History Class, a production of iHeartRadio.

Hello, and welcome to the podcast. I'm Tracy B.

Hello, and welcome to the podcast. I'm Tracy B.

Wilson and I'm Holly Frye.

Wilson and I'm Holly Frye.

Today we are going to talk about doctor.

Today we are going to talk about doctor.

Daniel Hale Williams, who's often described as the first person to successfully perform an open heart surgery.

Daniel Hale Williams, who's often described as the first person to successfully perform an open heart surgery.

That's not completely correct.

That's not completely correct.

There were some other earlier open heart procedures, but he was still a surgical innovator at a time when the field of surgery was not nearly as advanced as it is today. And he was also a huge part of the Black hospital movement that was in the pretty much the first half of the twentieth century, opening hospitals for black patients when a lot of the US medical system was racially segregated and a lot of places black patients did not have anywhere they could receive care.

There were some other earlier open heart procedures, but he was still a surgical innovator at a time when the field of surgery was not nearly as advanced as it is today. And he was also a huge part of the Black hospital movement that was in the pretty much the first half of the twentieth century, opening hospitals for black patients when a lot of the US medical system was racially segregated and a lot of places black patients did not have anywhere they could receive care.

Daniel Hale Williams, the third known as Dan, was born on January eighteenth, eighteen fifty six, in Hollidaysburg, Pennsylvania. He was the fifth of seven children born to Sarah Price Williams and Daniel Hale Williams Junior, who was a barber. The family were Methodists, and they had white, Indigenous and African ancestry. Sarah's mother had been enslaved on the same plantation in Maryland as Frederick Douglas, and she and Douglas were cousins.

Daniel Hale Williams, the third known as Dan, was born on January eighteenth, eighteen fifty six, in Hollidaysburg, Pennsylvania. He was the fifth of seven children born to Sarah Price Williams and Daniel Hale Williams Junior, who was a barber. The family were Methodists, and they had white, Indigenous and African ancestry. Sarah's mother had been enslaved on the same plantation in Maryland as Frederick Douglas, and she and Douglas were cousins.

There's not a lot of detail recorded about the younger Dan's earliest years, but in eighteen sixty seven, after the Civil War, the family went to Annapolis, Maryland, where Sarah had had family.

There's not a lot of detail recorded about the younger Dan's earliest years, but in eighteen sixty seven, after the Civil War, the family went to Annapolis, Maryland, where Sarah had had family.

Traveling to Maryland.

Traveling to Maryland.

Would not have been nearly as easy or possible before that point. Not long after they got there, though, Dan's father died of tuberculosis and Dan and his siblings were split up. Dan's brother was the oldest, and he was already in law school. Dan's two oldest sisters and their mother all went to Illinois to live with relatives and study hair dressing. Then the next two oldest sisters were placed in a convent school, and the youngest sister stayed with Dan's grandmother. Dan was pulled out of school and sent to Baltimore to live with a family friend and trained to be a shoemaker. Various accounts of all of this are pretty uncharitable toward Dan's mother. Although they were not rich, there were businessmen and landowners on both sides of the family, so Sarah did have some financial resources that she may have been able to draw on. At the same time, though she had gotten married at the age of fifteen, and without a husband, she didn't have a way to support herself and her children. It is absolutely reasonable that Dan would have felt abandoned. He was only eleven years old. But at the same time, it's seems like Sarah may have just been trying to do her best in some very difficult circumstances. Yeah, without like some specifics, I really could not tell whether there were legitimate criticisms of how she handled things or if people were just being really judgy. Dan's feelings might also have been influenced by the fact that he did not like making shoes. He was not enjoying this apprenticeship at all. Eventually, he talked one of his late father's friends into giving him a railroad pass, and he used that to go to Rockford, Illinois, where his mother and sisters were. Later on, he told a niece that when he got there at the age of only twelve, his mother told him that he seemed to have enough spunk to take care of himself. You could read that as impressed with what he had done, or as kind of flippant, and I don't really know which way she meant that. Sarah later moved again, leaving Dan and one of his sisters in Illinois with their cousins. Dan and his sister moved around a bit over the next few years, eventually making their.

Would not have been nearly as easy or possible before that point. Not long after they got there, though, Dan's father died of tuberculosis and Dan and his siblings were split up. Dan's brother was the oldest, and he was already in law school. Dan's two oldest sisters and their mother all went to Illinois to live with relatives and study hair dressing. Then the next two oldest sisters were placed in a convent school, and the youngest sister stayed with Dan's grandmother. Dan was pulled out of school and sent to Baltimore to live with a family friend and trained to be a shoemaker. Various accounts of all of this are pretty uncharitable toward Dan's mother. Although they were not rich, there were businessmen and landowners on both sides of the family, so Sarah did have some financial resources that she may have been able to draw on. At the same time, though she had gotten married at the age of fifteen, and without a husband, she didn't have a way to support herself and her children. It is absolutely reasonable that Dan would have felt abandoned. He was only eleven years old. But at the same time, it's seems like Sarah may have just been trying to do her best in some very difficult circumstances. Yeah, without like some specifics, I really could not tell whether there were legitimate criticisms of how she handled things or if people were just being really judgy. Dan's feelings might also have been influenced by the fact that he did not like making shoes. He was not enjoying this apprenticeship at all. Eventually, he talked one of his late father's friends into giving him a railroad pass, and he used that to go to Rockford, Illinois, where his mother and sisters were. Later on, he told a niece that when he got there at the age of only twelve, his mother told him that he seemed to have enough spunk to take care of himself. You could read that as impressed with what he had done, or as kind of flippant, and I don't really know which way she meant that. Sarah later moved again, leaving Dan and one of his sisters in Illinois with their cousins. Dan and his sister moved around a bit over the next few years, eventually making their.

Way to Wisconsin. Dan wanted to be in school and he liked learning, but they also needed money. He learned to be a barber like his late father, and he worked part time while living in Edgerton, Wisconsin. He left school without graduating after a series of respiratory illnesses. He wanted to finish his education, though, so he later enrolled in a private school called the Classical Academy in Janesville, Wisconsin, which was run by a doctor, Hayre. Dan paid his way by working part time at Charles Henry Anderson's Tonsorial parlor and bathing rooms, and Dan and his sister also boarded with the Andersons. As I understand it, the Andersons were the only black family in the neighborhood.

Way to Wisconsin. Dan wanted to be in school and he liked learning, but they also needed money. He learned to be a barber like his late father, and he worked part time while living in Edgerton, Wisconsin. He left school without graduating after a series of respiratory illnesses. He wanted to finish his education, though, so he later enrolled in a private school called the Classical Academy in Janesville, Wisconsin, which was run by a doctor, Hayre. Dan paid his way by working part time at Charles Henry Anderson's Tonsorial parlor and bathing rooms, and Dan and his sister also boarded with the Andersons. As I understand it, the Andersons were the only black family in the neighborhood.

As we said, there's not a lot.

As we said, there's not a lot.

Of concrete detail about William's earlier years, but he did have some experiences with racism, while living in Wisconsin. Williams had light skin and reddish hair, and while he identified himself in the parlance of the time as a Negro, people did not always immediately recognize that about him. At one point, the parents of another student at the Classical Academy threatened to withdraw their daughter because they did not want her to attend school with a black student. Doctor Hare's response to this was to offer to return her tuition.

Of concrete detail about William's earlier years, but he did have some experiences with racism, while living in Wisconsin. Williams had light skin and reddish hair, and while he identified himself in the parlance of the time as a Negro, people did not always immediately recognize that about him. At one point, the parents of another student at the Classical Academy threatened to withdraw their daughter because they did not want her to attend school with a black student. Doctor Hare's response to this was to offer to return her tuition.

Dan also had a relationship, or perhaps just a flirtation, with a young white woman named Ida Williams. They were not related, She was another student at Classical Academy, and it seems like she was more serious about him than he was about her. When her parents learned about the relationship, her father casually dropped that he was thinking of sending her and her sister to public school. Ida seems to have read between the lines that this was really about getting her away from Dan, and soon she was courting a white man named Jim Lord, who she later married. Aida and Dan kept in touch, though, and much later on, when her son was sick, Williams performed surgery on him, and he did not charge Aida for it.

Dan also had a relationship, or perhaps just a flirtation, with a young white woman named Ida Williams. They were not related, She was another student at Classical Academy, and it seems like she was more serious about him than he was about her. When her parents learned about the relationship, her father casually dropped that he was thinking of sending her and her sister to public school. Ida seems to have read between the lines that this was really about getting her away from Dan, and soon she was courting a white man named Jim Lord, who she later married. Aida and Dan kept in touch, though, and much later on, when her son was sick, Williams performed surgery on him, and he did not charge Aida for it.

In addition to going to school and working at the Tomsorial Parlor, Williams learned to play the fiddle and played with the Harry Anderson Orchestra and the Unitarian Church that he joined. After he graduated from the classical academy, he started law school, following the footsteps of his older brother, who was now a successful lawyer. When Williams decided he didn't like law, he changed courses and he got an apprenticeship with doctor Henry Palmer, who was a very well respected doctor and former Surgeon General of Wisconsin.

In addition to going to school and working at the Tomsorial Parlor, Williams learned to play the fiddle and played with the Harry Anderson Orchestra and the Unitarian Church that he joined. After he graduated from the classical academy, he started law school, following the footsteps of his older brother, who was now a successful lawyer. When Williams decided he didn't like law, he changed courses and he got an apprenticeship with doctor Henry Palmer, who was a very well respected doctor and former Surgeon General of Wisconsin.

While medical schools did exist in the US by this point, it was more common for people to at least start their metal education as an apprentice. Palmer was a little reluctant to take Williams on at first because of his short time studying law. Palmer wanted to make sure that Williams was actually committed to medical study and wasn't going to just switch tracks again. Palmer also accepted to other apprentices, Frank Pember and James S. Mills, which allowed all three of them to study at the same time and for Palmer to run his clinic twenty four hours a day. After a two year apprenticeship, all three of them went to Chicago Medical School, which later became Northwestern University Medical School. They all started in eighteen eighty and due to some kind of a miscommunication, they all got there a week early. They showed up at the school and the only person there was the janitor, who gave them a tour of the building and some tips about the unwritten rules of etiquette among the students, like as first years, they should not take the good seats in the operating theater when they were watching procedures. Williams really struggled to pay for medical school. He lived with a widowed family friend known as missus John Jones. Her late husband had been a friend of his late father. This was less expensive than other housing options, but he still didn't have a lot of money. He cut hair and he played music, but medical school required most of his time and attention. He wrote to his mother for help, and she said she didn't have any money to give him, but that she had made some loans to other people. She suggested that he try to collect on their notes, which immediately proved to be impossible, and then he wound up taking loans from other people, including his former mentor Harry Anderson. While Williams was in medical school, an outbreak of smallpox struck the city of Chicago. Edward Jenner had started really publicizing the smallpox vaccine more than eighty years before this, but vaccination hadn't completely become a routine practice yet. As a medical student working with patients, Williams was exposed and contracted smallpox himself. He had some scars alongside his nose afterward, but beyond that he recovered. While Williams was a student, the medical school became connected to Saint Luke's Hospital, and he started doing some clinical work there. The hospital was employing Joseph Lister's techniques for antiseptic surgery, which Lister had started publishing in the late eighteen sixties. This included using carbolic acid to kill pathogens on instruments and services and on surgeon's hands, as well as a carbolic acid spray to kill pathogens in the air around the patient. This was also fairly early in the development of modern anesthesia. While alcohol, opium, and other substances had been used earlier on in history, gases like nitrous oxide, t ether, and chloroform had come into use in the mid nineteenth century. The methods of delivering these gases weren't always efficient, though, so the operating theater could be filled with a haze of carbolic acid and the gas used to anesthetize the patient.

While medical schools did exist in the US by this point, it was more common for people to at least start their metal education as an apprentice. Palmer was a little reluctant to take Williams on at first because of his short time studying law. Palmer wanted to make sure that Williams was actually committed to medical study and wasn't going to just switch tracks again. Palmer also accepted to other apprentices, Frank Pember and James S. Mills, which allowed all three of them to study at the same time and for Palmer to run his clinic twenty four hours a day. After a two year apprenticeship, all three of them went to Chicago Medical School, which later became Northwestern University Medical School. They all started in eighteen eighty and due to some kind of a miscommunication, they all got there a week early. They showed up at the school and the only person there was the janitor, who gave them a tour of the building and some tips about the unwritten rules of etiquette among the students, like as first years, they should not take the good seats in the operating theater when they were watching procedures. Williams really struggled to pay for medical school. He lived with a widowed family friend known as missus John Jones. Her late husband had been a friend of his late father. This was less expensive than other housing options, but he still didn't have a lot of money. He cut hair and he played music, but medical school required most of his time and attention. He wrote to his mother for help, and she said she didn't have any money to give him, but that she had made some loans to other people. She suggested that he try to collect on their notes, which immediately proved to be impossible, and then he wound up taking loans from other people, including his former mentor Harry Anderson. While Williams was in medical school, an outbreak of smallpox struck the city of Chicago. Edward Jenner had started really publicizing the smallpox vaccine more than eighty years before this, but vaccination hadn't completely become a routine practice yet. As a medical student working with patients, Williams was exposed and contracted smallpox himself. He had some scars alongside his nose afterward, but beyond that he recovered. While Williams was a student, the medical school became connected to Saint Luke's Hospital, and he started doing some clinical work there. The hospital was employing Joseph Lister's techniques for antiseptic surgery, which Lister had started publishing in the late eighteen sixties. This included using carbolic acid to kill pathogens on instruments and services and on surgeon's hands, as well as a carbolic acid spray to kill pathogens in the air around the patient. This was also fairly early in the development of modern anesthesia. While alcohol, opium, and other substances had been used earlier on in history, gases like nitrous oxide, t ether, and chloroform had come into use in the mid nineteenth century. The methods of delivering these gases weren't always efficient, though, so the operating theater could be filled with a haze of carbolic acid and the gas used to anesthetize the patient.

Williams graduated from medical school in eighteen eighty three. Initially, he planned to move closer to where his mother was living, so he applied for a license to practice medicine in Washington, d c. But then he changed his mind and he decided to stay in Chicago, so he applied for a license to practice in Illinois as well. He established his own practice, and he started working to pay back all the money he had borrowed to go to medical school.

Williams graduated from medical school in eighteen eighty three. Initially, he planned to move closer to where his mother was living, so he applied for a license to practice medicine in Washington, d c. But then he changed his mind and he decided to stay in Chicago, so he applied for a license to practice in Illinois as well. He established his own practice, and he started working to pay back all the money he had borrowed to go to medical school.

Which he was able to do, but it was.

Which he was able to do, but it was.

Difficult since the United States was in the middle of a huge economic downturn.

Difficult since the United States was in the middle of a huge economic downturn.

He also built a life for himself in the city. He lived and practiced medicine in a multiracial neighborhood and taught as an anatomy demonstrator at Chicago Medical College. He enjoyed opera and attended All Souls Unitarian Church. He also joined a Republican organization called the Hamilton Club, where he was one of just a few black members. While he was still in school, the people in his community had gotten to know him as Dan, not as doctor Williams, and some of them really struggled to start referring to him in this more formal way, So before long he was just known as doctor Dan. We'll talk about doctor Dan's early medical career. After a sponsor break, after finishing medical school, Daniel Hale Williams was hired as part of the staff at south Side Dispensary. The dispensaries of this era were walk in clinics that were meant for people who couldn't afford to see a private doctor. They were often funded by churches and charitable organizations, or sometimes they were part of the hands on training for medical students. He was able to do very minor outpatient surgical procedures at the dispensary, but he really wanted to be able to do surgeries that were more involved than that. None of the hospitals in Chicago would grant surgical privileges to a black doctor, though, so he did these surgeries in his patients' homes. He followed antiseptic procedures as much as he could in a home environment, including doing things like baking the patient's bedsheets in the oven to use them as surgical drapes. As he got himself established as a doctor and surgeon, Williams became the first black surgeon to be hired by the City Railway Company, and in eighteen eighty nine he accepted an unpaid two year appointment to the Illinois State Board of Health. His appointment it was renewed two years later, but ended after it wasn't renewed a third time following the election of a new governor. During these years, Williams fell in love with a woman named Kitty May Black, who had a similar multi racial ancestry to his own, but since she had very light skin, her parents really wanted hur to marry someone white, and they arranged for her to marry a white lawyer. Williams was really heartbroken about this, and even more so after she died of a sudden illness a few years later, with her friends saying it had not seemed like she wanted to survive. After this, Williams really threw himself into his work. While Williams had not been kept out of medical school because of his race, at this point, there were no nursing schools in Chicago that were accepting black students. In December of eighteen ninety, the Reverend Lewis Reynolds, pastor of Saint Stephen's African Methodist Church, a pro coached Williams on behalf of his sister, Emma. Emma had come to Chicago to live with her brother and to learn to be a nurse, but every nursing school in the city had turned her down because she was black.

He also built a life for himself in the city. He lived and practiced medicine in a multiracial neighborhood and taught as an anatomy demonstrator at Chicago Medical College. He enjoyed opera and attended All Souls Unitarian Church. He also joined a Republican organization called the Hamilton Club, where he was one of just a few black members. While he was still in school, the people in his community had gotten to know him as Dan, not as doctor Williams, and some of them really struggled to start referring to him in this more formal way, So before long he was just known as doctor Dan. We'll talk about doctor Dan's early medical career. After a sponsor break, after finishing medical school, Daniel Hale Williams was hired as part of the staff at south Side Dispensary. The dispensaries of this era were walk in clinics that were meant for people who couldn't afford to see a private doctor. They were often funded by churches and charitable organizations, or sometimes they were part of the hands on training for medical students. He was able to do very minor outpatient surgical procedures at the dispensary, but he really wanted to be able to do surgeries that were more involved than that. None of the hospitals in Chicago would grant surgical privileges to a black doctor, though, so he did these surgeries in his patients' homes. He followed antiseptic procedures as much as he could in a home environment, including doing things like baking the patient's bedsheets in the oven to use them as surgical drapes. As he got himself established as a doctor and surgeon, Williams became the first black surgeon to be hired by the City Railway Company, and in eighteen eighty nine he accepted an unpaid two year appointment to the Illinois State Board of Health. His appointment it was renewed two years later, but ended after it wasn't renewed a third time following the election of a new governor. During these years, Williams fell in love with a woman named Kitty May Black, who had a similar multi racial ancestry to his own, but since she had very light skin, her parents really wanted hur to marry someone white, and they arranged for her to marry a white lawyer. Williams was really heartbroken about this, and even more so after she died of a sudden illness a few years later, with her friends saying it had not seemed like she wanted to survive. After this, Williams really threw himself into his work. While Williams had not been kept out of medical school because of his race, at this point, there were no nursing schools in Chicago that were accepting black students. In December of eighteen ninety, the Reverend Lewis Reynolds, pastor of Saint Stephen's African Methodist Church, a pro coached Williams on behalf of his sister, Emma. Emma had come to Chicago to live with her brother and to learn to be a nurse, but every nursing school in the city had turned her down because she was black.

This was still really early in the development of nursing as a professionalized field. The first nursing school in the United States had been established less than twenty years before this, in eighteen seventy two. Before this, people who worked as nurses had often been through some kind of informal or on the job training, or sometimes they were people who were helping to take care of the sick and injured without really a lot of training or education in that at all. A lot of the nurses that were working were really dedicated and knowledgeable. But the field of medicine was rapidly becoming a lot more complex. There were all kinds of new developments in things like infection control, anesthesia, and surgery, so hospitals and medical practices were also seeing a need for nurses that had a more formal, broader education.

This was still really early in the development of nursing as a professionalized field. The first nursing school in the United States had been established less than twenty years before this, in eighteen seventy two. Before this, people who worked as nurses had often been through some kind of informal or on the job training, or sometimes they were people who were helping to take care of the sick and injured without really a lot of training or education in that at all. A lot of the nurses that were working were really dedicated and knowledgeable. But the field of medicine was rapidly becoming a lot more complex. There were all kinds of new developments in things like infection control, anesthesia, and surgery, so hospitals and medical practices were also seeing a need for nurses that had a more formal, broader education.

Williams had patients who were recovering from surgery at home or living at home with chronic or progressive conditions, and they needed nurses, and those nurses needed to have specific skills. He also knew that some of his black patients really would not be comfortable in the care of a white nurse, that they didn't know if he could even find a white nurse willing to do the job. So simultaneously, he thought no one should be denied in education in nursing because of their race, and that there was a need for black nurses specifically, and another need was running alongside that one. There was only one hospital in Chicago that would admit black patients. That was Cook County Hospital on the west side. Williams was living and working on the city's south side, and the black members of his community just didn't have a hospital nearby that they could go to. He realized that he could try to fill all of these gaps at once, establishing a hospital that would accept patients regardless of their race, which would also be a place to train black nurses, and it would be a place where black doctors and surgeons could work since they were being barred from existing hospitals because of their race as well. With the help of churches and community organizations, Williams and the Reverend Reynolds started raising money. People held bake sales and also donated furniture and other items from their own homes for use in the hospital. Several white industrialists became major financial backers, including George Pullman and Cyrus McCormick. This wasn't just about philanthropy, but also making sure their black employees had access to medical care so that they could recover from ill lists and injuries and get back to work. Armor Meat Packing Company provided the down payment for the hospital building. Williams faced some fierce disagreement from people who did not support his plans to open a hospital, and a lot of that disagreement came from within the black community. His critics argued that he was reinforcing racial segregation at a time when Chicago was becoming increasingly racially segregated. They thought he should instead be focused on fighting segregation at the hospitals and nursing schools that already existed instead. In spite of that opposition, articles of incorporation were filed for a twelve bed facility called Provident Hospital and Training School Association on January twenty third, eighteen ninety one, and staffing turned out to be a challenge. The nursing program was overwhelmed with one hundred and seventy five applications for its eighteen month training program, but only seven of them were accepted, including Emma Reynolds. Williams wanted applicants who were quote fairly educated, as well as being prompt, neat, and organized. They had to have a gentle voice and a patient temper, and he felt that a lot of the applicants just did not meet those criteria, and because black doctors and surgeons had been excluded from a lot of medical programs and from working at other hospitals, he also had trouble finding top tier doctors and surgeons who were also black.

Williams had patients who were recovering from surgery at home or living at home with chronic or progressive conditions, and they needed nurses, and those nurses needed to have specific skills. He also knew that some of his black patients really would not be comfortable in the care of a white nurse, that they didn't know if he could even find a white nurse willing to do the job. So simultaneously, he thought no one should be denied in education in nursing because of their race, and that there was a need for black nurses specifically, and another need was running alongside that one. There was only one hospital in Chicago that would admit black patients. That was Cook County Hospital on the west side. Williams was living and working on the city's south side, and the black members of his community just didn't have a hospital nearby that they could go to. He realized that he could try to fill all of these gaps at once, establishing a hospital that would accept patients regardless of their race, which would also be a place to train black nurses, and it would be a place where black doctors and surgeons could work since they were being barred from existing hospitals because of their race as well. With the help of churches and community organizations, Williams and the Reverend Reynolds started raising money. People held bake sales and also donated furniture and other items from their own homes for use in the hospital. Several white industrialists became major financial backers, including George Pullman and Cyrus McCormick. This wasn't just about philanthropy, but also making sure their black employees had access to medical care so that they could recover from ill lists and injuries and get back to work. Armor Meat Packing Company provided the down payment for the hospital building. Williams faced some fierce disagreement from people who did not support his plans to open a hospital, and a lot of that disagreement came from within the black community. His critics argued that he was reinforcing racial segregation at a time when Chicago was becoming increasingly racially segregated. They thought he should instead be focused on fighting segregation at the hospitals and nursing schools that already existed instead. In spite of that opposition, articles of incorporation were filed for a twelve bed facility called Provident Hospital and Training School Association on January twenty third, eighteen ninety one, and staffing turned out to be a challenge. The nursing program was overwhelmed with one hundred and seventy five applications for its eighteen month training program, but only seven of them were accepted, including Emma Reynolds. Williams wanted applicants who were quote fairly educated, as well as being prompt, neat, and organized. They had to have a gentle voice and a patient temper, and he felt that a lot of the applicants just did not meet those criteria, and because black doctors and surgeons had been excluded from a lot of medical programs and from working at other hospitals, he also had trouble finding top tier doctors and surgeons who were also black.

The hospital did open its doors, though, and it was integrated for both patients and staff. The surgical ward was always very busy, treating a lot of people who worked in Chicago's stockyards and railroads who had been injured on the job. The hospital and the nursing school both did really well, although they did face some serious financial issues during the Panic of eighteen ninety three. Pent the hospitals survived this financial crisis, largely thanks to Frederick Douglas, who raised money for it during the Chicago World's Fair. On July ninth, eighteen ninety three, a man named James Cornish was stabbed in a fight and brought to Provident Hospital. They didn't have the knife and he couldn't really describe it, and X rays and other imaging techniques had not been invented yet, so it wasn't really clear exactly how deep the wound was from the outside, though it looked relatively shallow. Cornish was admitted for observation, and overnight he started experiencing increasing pain and showing signs of shock. Williams thought that he might be bleeding internally or having some other more serious issue, and the only way to tell was to open his chest to look. Williams invited six surgeons to observe this, four of them white and two of them black. Williams made an incision between Cornish's ribs, essentially extending the edges of the stab wound. Then he lifted the intercostal cartilage like a trap door to see what was underneath. He could see that the knife had damaged the left internal memory artery, it had also penetrated through the pericardium that's the sack that surrounds and protects the heart, and into the heart muscle itself. First, Williams repaired the damage to that artery. Then he irrigated the wounds to the pericardium and heart with saline. The heart muscle wasn't hemorrhaging, and he left that part of the injury alone. He used forceps to hold the damaged edges of the pericardium and he sutured them together, and once he had done that, he closed all of his incisions. Williams did all of this without a lot of the tools that would be used for this kind of surgery today. In addition to the lack of X ray and other imaging, antibiotics and anticoagulants had not been invented yet. Neither had rib spreaders or tools for keeping a patient's airway open while they were anesthetized. Obviously, neither had heart bypass machines that allow surgeons to stop a person's heart during surgery today. So Williams was doing this surgery as the heart was beating and the edges of the torn pericardium were continually fluttering. In addition to carrying out this procedure on a beating heart with very basic tools, Williams was also doing something that most of the surgical community thought was impossible. Williams had read a paper that had theorized about a surgical repair to the pericardium while he was in medical school, but that surgeon had not actually tried to perform one. Really, most surgeons in Europe and North America believed that even trying to explore a beating heart was likely to just kill the patient. German surgeon Theodore bill Roth, who is sometimes called the founder of abdominal surgery, was quoted as saying, quote, any surgeon who would attempt to suture a wound of the heart is not worthy of the serious consideration of his colleagues. The common course of treatment for an injury like Cornish's was cold rest and opium, and not surgery.

The hospital did open its doors, though, and it was integrated for both patients and staff. The surgical ward was always very busy, treating a lot of people who worked in Chicago's stockyards and railroads who had been injured on the job. The hospital and the nursing school both did really well, although they did face some serious financial issues during the Panic of eighteen ninety three. Pent the hospitals survived this financial crisis, largely thanks to Frederick Douglas, who raised money for it during the Chicago World's Fair. On July ninth, eighteen ninety three, a man named James Cornish was stabbed in a fight and brought to Provident Hospital. They didn't have the knife and he couldn't really describe it, and X rays and other imaging techniques had not been invented yet, so it wasn't really clear exactly how deep the wound was from the outside, though it looked relatively shallow. Cornish was admitted for observation, and overnight he started experiencing increasing pain and showing signs of shock. Williams thought that he might be bleeding internally or having some other more serious issue, and the only way to tell was to open his chest to look. Williams invited six surgeons to observe this, four of them white and two of them black. Williams made an incision between Cornish's ribs, essentially extending the edges of the stab wound. Then he lifted the intercostal cartilage like a trap door to see what was underneath. He could see that the knife had damaged the left internal memory artery, it had also penetrated through the pericardium that's the sack that surrounds and protects the heart, and into the heart muscle itself. First, Williams repaired the damage to that artery. Then he irrigated the wounds to the pericardium and heart with saline. The heart muscle wasn't hemorrhaging, and he left that part of the injury alone. He used forceps to hold the damaged edges of the pericardium and he sutured them together, and once he had done that, he closed all of his incisions. Williams did all of this without a lot of the tools that would be used for this kind of surgery today. In addition to the lack of X ray and other imaging, antibiotics and anticoagulants had not been invented yet. Neither had rib spreaders or tools for keeping a patient's airway open while they were anesthetized. Obviously, neither had heart bypass machines that allow surgeons to stop a person's heart during surgery today. So Williams was doing this surgery as the heart was beating and the edges of the torn pericardium were continually fluttering. In addition to carrying out this procedure on a beating heart with very basic tools, Williams was also doing something that most of the surgical community thought was impossible. Williams had read a paper that had theorized about a surgical repair to the pericardium while he was in medical school, but that surgeon had not actually tried to perform one. Really, most surgeons in Europe and North America believed that even trying to explore a beating heart was likely to just kill the patient. German surgeon Theodore bill Roth, who is sometimes called the founder of abdominal surgery, was quoted as saying, quote, any surgeon who would attempt to suture a wound of the heart is not worthy of the serious consideration of his colleagues. The common course of treatment for an injury like Cornish's was cold rest and opium, and not surgery.

Cornish survived this surgery. A few days later, The Chicago Daily inter Ocean reported on it, describing it as a marvelous surgical operation and an astonishing feat. Twenty one days into Cornish's recovery, he developed cardiac tampanaud or, a build up of fluid in his pericardium, and Williams performed another procedure to remove it through a needle. He did know about earlier attempts to remove excess fluid from the pericardium, although without today's imaging technologies that was extremely risky. Cornish was discharged from the hospital after fifty one days. Williams searched through medical literature to see if he could find evidence of another surgeon having done something similar, and he came up with nothing. After following up with Cornish three years later and confirming that he was alive and in good health, Williams wrote up a paper on the surgery, and that was published in the Medical Record in eighteen ninety seven. Although it was initially hailed as a first, it was later discovered that doctor Henry Dalton had published on a similar procedure in the Annals of Surgery in eighteen ninety one, and there.

Cornish survived this surgery. A few days later, The Chicago Daily inter Ocean reported on it, describing it as a marvelous surgical operation and an astonishing feat. Twenty one days into Cornish's recovery, he developed cardiac tampanaud or, a build up of fluid in his pericardium, and Williams performed another procedure to remove it through a needle. He did know about earlier attempts to remove excess fluid from the pericardium, although without today's imaging technologies that was extremely risky. Cornish was discharged from the hospital after fifty one days. Williams searched through medical literature to see if he could find evidence of another surgeon having done something similar, and he came up with nothing. After following up with Cornish three years later and confirming that he was alive and in good health, Williams wrote up a paper on the surgery, and that was published in the Medical Record in eighteen ninety seven. Although it was initially hailed as a first, it was later discovered that doctor Henry Dalton had published on a similar procedure in the Annals of Surgery in eighteen ninety one, and there.

Were also some other even earlier examples of similar procedures. By the time his paper was published, Williams had moved on from Provident Hospital, and we'll get to that after a sponsor break. Not long after his surgery on James Cornish, Daniel Hale Williams was appointed to the position of surgeon in chief at Freedman's Hospital in Washington, d C. The federal government had established Freedman's Hospital in eighteen sixty two, and in eighteen sixty eight it had also become a teaching hospital for Howard University Medical School. As chief surgeon, that would also make Williams a professor of surgery at Howard. Williams was really reluctant to leave Provident Hospital, but he apparently changed his mind after a conversation with Secretary of State Walter Q.

Were also some other even earlier examples of similar procedures. By the time his paper was published, Williams had moved on from Provident Hospital, and we'll get to that after a sponsor break. Not long after his surgery on James Cornish, Daniel Hale Williams was appointed to the position of surgeon in chief at Freedman's Hospital in Washington, d C. The federal government had established Freedman's Hospital in eighteen sixty two, and in eighteen sixty eight it had also become a teaching hospital for Howard University Medical School. As chief surgeon, that would also make Williams a professor of surgery at Howard. Williams was really reluctant to leave Provident Hospital, but he apparently changed his mind after a conversation with Secretary of State Walter Q.

Gresham.

Gresham.

Gresham told him quote, if it's service to your race, you're thinking of Freedman's needs, you more than Provident from all I hear. William's start date was unfortunately delayed by an accident. While out quail hunting, he was shot in the foot. He developed an infection, and for a while it looked like his leg might have to be amputated. Once Williams was well enough to return to work, he was months later than planned and really still recovering. He had also been targeted by a smear campaign by another surgeon, George Cleveland Hall, who seems to have had a grudge against Williams after Williams didn't back him for an appointment at Provident Hospital. William's predecessor at Friedman's Hospital was Charles Burley Purvis, who had been the hospital's surgeon in Chards for over a decade. Purvis had also served in the Union Army during the Civil War and had been one of the founders of Howard Medical School. But a lot had changed in the world of medicine over all those years, and William's perception was that Purvis and the hospital had just not kept up with those changes. Purvis later alleged that he had been replaced because of politics.

Gresham told him quote, if it's service to your race, you're thinking of Freedman's needs, you more than Provident from all I hear. William's start date was unfortunately delayed by an accident. While out quail hunting, he was shot in the foot. He developed an infection, and for a while it looked like his leg might have to be amputated. Once Williams was well enough to return to work, he was months later than planned and really still recovering. He had also been targeted by a smear campaign by another surgeon, George Cleveland Hall, who seems to have had a grudge against Williams after Williams didn't back him for an appointment at Provident Hospital. William's predecessor at Friedman's Hospital was Charles Burley Purvis, who had been the hospital's surgeon in Chards for over a decade. Purvis had also served in the Union Army during the Civil War and had been one of the founders of Howard Medical School. But a lot had changed in the world of medicine over all those years, and William's perception was that Purvis and the hospital had just not kept up with those changes. Purvis later alleged that he had been replaced because of politics.

When Williams started, Freedman's Hospital was organized into three general wards, one for men, one for women, and one for.

When Williams started, Freedman's Hospital was organized into three general wards, one for men, one for women, and one for.

Labor and delivery.

Labor and delivery.

The nursing staff was mostly made up of people who had not been through formal training, meaning they also didn't have the kind of experience or skills that Williams thought was necessary. He also found the hospital's surgical mortality rate of almost ten percent to be unacceptable.

The nursing staff was mostly made up of people who had not been through formal training, meaning they also didn't have the kind of experience or skills that Williams thought was necessary. He also found the hospital's surgical mortality rate of almost ten percent to be unacceptable.

Williams reorganized the hospital into departments. I used all the modern terms for these departments today. They were general medicine, surgery, gynecology, obstetrics, dermatology, urology, and pulmonology. He also established an ambulance service, which was essentially a delivery wagon that could bring patients to the hospital. He replaced the nursing staff and updated surgical techniques and antiseptic procedures. In addition to recruiting new medical and surgical staff, he also granted surgical privileges to some of the area's best surgeons. Soon, the surgical mortality rate at the hospital had dropped to one point five percent. Williams also wanted Freedman's Hospital to be seen as a highly respected and cutting edge facility, which meant getting the public to trust the abilities of black surgeons. To that end, he offered lectures and demonstrations at the hospital, including opportunities for the public to observe surgical procedures in the operating theater. Williams resigned from Freedman's Hospital in eighteen ninety eight after about five years. The hospital was still under the control of the Department of the Interior, and that meant that it was often in the crosshairs of various political squabbles. An investigation into charitable institutions in Washington, d C. Including the hospital had also started in eighteen ninety six, and Purvis hadn't been trying to get reinstated to his position. Williams was accused of financial mismanagement, but the reason he gave for leaving was that he was just tired of all the politics. That same year, at the age of forty two, Williams married thirty nine year old Alice Johnson, who was the daughter of American artist Moses jacob Ezekiel, who was Jewish and a formerly enslaved woman. Alice was a teacher and a graduate of Howard University who had remained single after an ugly breakup when she was much younger. She didn't want to wear white for her wedding because her mother had recently died, so instead she wore a navy blue suit. Dan's friend Paul Lawrence Dunbar wrote a poem to commemorate his marriage, titled to Dan. That poem started step me now a bridal measure, work, give way to love and leisure. Hearts be free, and hearts be gay. Doctor Dan Doth wed today. They moved back to Chicago, and they had one child together, who sadly died at birth. A congressional report about Friedman's Hospital was released after Dan and Alice had gotten married, and it detailed a lot of issues at the hospital. A lot of those issues, though, were ones that Williams had reported to the Department of the Interior but which had not been dealt with. The report recommended huge cuts to the staff, including to the nursing staff, and it described Howard Medical School as quote encroaching on the hospital.

Williams reorganized the hospital into departments. I used all the modern terms for these departments today. They were general medicine, surgery, gynecology, obstetrics, dermatology, urology, and pulmonology. He also established an ambulance service, which was essentially a delivery wagon that could bring patients to the hospital. He replaced the nursing staff and updated surgical techniques and antiseptic procedures. In addition to recruiting new medical and surgical staff, he also granted surgical privileges to some of the area's best surgeons. Soon, the surgical mortality rate at the hospital had dropped to one point five percent. Williams also wanted Freedman's Hospital to be seen as a highly respected and cutting edge facility, which meant getting the public to trust the abilities of black surgeons. To that end, he offered lectures and demonstrations at the hospital, including opportunities for the public to observe surgical procedures in the operating theater. Williams resigned from Freedman's Hospital in eighteen ninety eight after about five years. The hospital was still under the control of the Department of the Interior, and that meant that it was often in the crosshairs of various political squabbles. An investigation into charitable institutions in Washington, d C. Including the hospital had also started in eighteen ninety six, and Purvis hadn't been trying to get reinstated to his position. Williams was accused of financial mismanagement, but the reason he gave for leaving was that he was just tired of all the politics. That same year, at the age of forty two, Williams married thirty nine year old Alice Johnson, who was the daughter of American artist Moses jacob Ezekiel, who was Jewish and a formerly enslaved woman. Alice was a teacher and a graduate of Howard University who had remained single after an ugly breakup when she was much younger. She didn't want to wear white for her wedding because her mother had recently died, so instead she wore a navy blue suit. Dan's friend Paul Lawrence Dunbar wrote a poem to commemorate his marriage, titled to Dan. That poem started step me now a bridal measure, work, give way to love and leisure. Hearts be free, and hearts be gay. Doctor Dan Doth wed today. They moved back to Chicago, and they had one child together, who sadly died at birth. A congressional report about Friedman's Hospital was released after Dan and Alice had gotten married, and it detailed a lot of issues at the hospital. A lot of those issues, though, were ones that Williams had reported to the Department of the Interior but which had not been dealt with. The report recommended huge cuts to the staff, including to the nursing staff, and it described Howard Medical School as quote encroaching on the hospital.

There were some newspapers that defended Williams after this report was released, and others that attacked him. He was questioned about his work, including a lot of questions about hospital spending. This included very specific questions about transactions that had happened years before the sale of two cameras that he said were his personal property but that were implied to have really belonged to the government, and and how much was spent on various equipment that was both expensive and useless if it was damaged or worn. This has to have been frustrating, considering that he brought a lot of his own equipment with him when he started working at the hospital because the hospital didn't have it, and a lot of that equipment he never got back. Yeah, some of these questions were like questions about purchases of needles from eighteen ninety four or something, and he was like, how do you expect me to know this? There's a stationary invoice.

There were some newspapers that defended Williams after this report was released, and others that attacked him. He was questioned about his work, including a lot of questions about hospital spending. This included very specific questions about transactions that had happened years before the sale of two cameras that he said were his personal property but that were implied to have really belonged to the government, and and how much was spent on various equipment that was both expensive and useless if it was damaged or worn. This has to have been frustrating, considering that he brought a lot of his own equipment with him when he started working at the hospital because the hospital didn't have it, and a lot of that equipment he never got back. Yeah, some of these questions were like questions about purchases of needles from eighteen ninety four or something, and he was like, how do you expect me to know this? There's a stationary invoice.

Back in Chicago, Williams went back to working at Provident Hospital, which had moved to a new sixty five bed location. George Cleveland Hall was now on the board there, and there continued to be a lot of friction between him and Williams. Williams also started writing to Booker T. Washington trying to get a teaching hospital established at the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama. The Tuskegee Institute had been founded in eighteen eighty one.

Back in Chicago, Williams went back to working at Provident Hospital, which had moved to a new sixty five bed location. George Cleveland Hall was now on the board there, and there continued to be a lot of friction between him and Williams. Williams also started writing to Booker T. Washington trying to get a teaching hospital established at the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama. The Tuskegee Institute had been founded in eighteen eighty one.

Booker T.

Booker T.

Washington seems to have thought a hospital would be taking on too much, too fast and put the institute at risk, but Williams thought there was an obvious need for one. In addition to thinking it was critical to training doctors, he had seen black patients who had come all the way from Alabama trying to get access to medical care. Washington eventually stopped answering Williams letters, and Williams later learned that Washington had also been getting a lot of letters from George Cleveland Hall. There seems to just have been a lot of animosity between the two of them. In eighteen ninety nine, George Hubbard, president and dean of Mahary Medical College in Nashville, Tennessee, contacted Williams about conducting surgical clinics at the college. Maharry is a historically black medical school founded in eighteen seventy six, but at the time it wasn't connected to a teaching hospital. Williams's first clinic was held in a cramped room, and afterward he stressed that the only way for doctors insurgeons to really excel, or even to be truly ready to practice medicine and surgery was to have the opportunity for hands on instruction and practice at a teaching hospital. He was quoted as saying, we can't sit any longer idly and inanely deploring the existing conditions. We must start our own hospitals and training schools. In January of nineteen hundred, Williams returned to Nashville to give a lecture on this subject at the Phyllis Wheetlee Club. He advocated for every city in the South with a population of more than ten thousand black people to have its own black hospital with an attached nursing training school. This would provide hospitals that would accept black patients and places for black doctors and surgeons to work. He talked about how to get such a hospital started by renting a house with ten or twelve rooms, preferably with a basement, furnishing it modestly so that it would be easy to clean, and hiring a level headed graduate nurse to act as the superintendent, and then appointing the best physicians that could be found to work there. Then he passed on something Frederick Douglass had written to him in a letter in eighteen ninety four, quote, the only way you can succeed is to override the obstacles in your path. Hope will be of no avail by the power that is within you. Do what you hope to do. A teaching hospital was established in Nashville that September. Williams continued to hold his annual surgical clinics there and they were described as the highlight of every year for the medical students. He was paid only a travel stipend, and he donated that.

Washington seems to have thought a hospital would be taking on too much, too fast and put the institute at risk, but Williams thought there was an obvious need for one. In addition to thinking it was critical to training doctors, he had seen black patients who had come all the way from Alabama trying to get access to medical care. Washington eventually stopped answering Williams letters, and Williams later learned that Washington had also been getting a lot of letters from George Cleveland Hall. There seems to just have been a lot of animosity between the two of them. In eighteen ninety nine, George Hubbard, president and dean of Mahary Medical College in Nashville, Tennessee, contacted Williams about conducting surgical clinics at the college. Maharry is a historically black medical school founded in eighteen seventy six, but at the time it wasn't connected to a teaching hospital. Williams's first clinic was held in a cramped room, and afterward he stressed that the only way for doctors insurgeons to really excel, or even to be truly ready to practice medicine and surgery was to have the opportunity for hands on instruction and practice at a teaching hospital. He was quoted as saying, we can't sit any longer idly and inanely deploring the existing conditions. We must start our own hospitals and training schools. In January of nineteen hundred, Williams returned to Nashville to give a lecture on this subject at the Phyllis Wheetlee Club. He advocated for every city in the South with a population of more than ten thousand black people to have its own black hospital with an attached nursing training school. This would provide hospitals that would accept black patients and places for black doctors and surgeons to work. He talked about how to get such a hospital started by renting a house with ten or twelve rooms, preferably with a basement, furnishing it modestly so that it would be easy to clean, and hiring a level headed graduate nurse to act as the superintendent, and then appointing the best physicians that could be found to work there. Then he passed on something Frederick Douglass had written to him in a letter in eighteen ninety four, quote, the only way you can succeed is to override the obstacles in your path. Hope will be of no avail by the power that is within you. Do what you hope to do. A teaching hospital was established in Nashville that September. Williams continued to hold his annual surgical clinics there and they were described as the highlight of every year for the medical students. He was paid only a travel stipend, and he donated that.

Back to Mahary.

Back to Mahary.

A lot of the time he was doing surgeries that the students really didn't have other opportunities to see. They were often very complicated or uncommon procedures. He was known for operating incredibly skillfully and also very quickly given the limitations of general anesthesia at the time. He was also continually pushing himself as a surgeon, and he was also breaking new ground in the field. In nineteen oh two, he became one of the first surgeons to successfully repair a traumatic hemorrhage in a spleen. At the time, it was more common to remove the spleen than to try to repair it. There had been at least one successful surgical spleen repair before this, but Williams did not know about it. In nineteen twelve, while he was still working at Provident Hospital, Williams also became associate attending surgeon at Saint Luke's Hospital in Chicago, but the following year he resigned from Provident. There are kind of multiple conflicting stories about why what is that Providence bore passed a policy that surgeons who worked at Provident could only work at Provident. That was a policy that was probably written to target Williams, and it might also have been connected to the ongoing animosity with George Cleveland Hall. It's also possible that Williams felt like Provident was no longer really aligned with his original vision for it. He had established it in order to train black nurses and to provide a place that would accept black patients and where black doctors could work. He had also helped to establish the National Medical Association since black doctors were being excluded from the American Medical Association, but he had wanted Provident to specifically be integrated and to provide connections between the white and black medical communities in Chicago. Over time, Providence staff had become less and less integrated and more predominantly black, and that was part of an increasing pattern of racial segregation in Chicago more generally. Williams kept working at Saint Luke's as well as teaching and consulting. Former students and colleagues would write to him for help and advice, and sometimes when his former students' patients did not have access to a hospital that would admit them, he would still perform surgery in their homes. He also continued to advocate for the establishment of black owned hospitals that would benefit black patients and doctors alike. He helped establish at least forty hospitals that were open to black patients. In nineteen thirteen, Williams also became the only black founding member of the American College of Surgeons, which got its second black member twenty one years later. Dan's wife, Alice, developed Parkinson's disease and died in nineteen twenty four. They were married until her death, but their relationship had become more strained after d had an affair years before. Daniel Hale Williams moved to northern Michigan. In nineteen twenty six, he was partially paralyzed after a stroke. He died on August fourth, nineteen thirty one, at the age of seventy five, and he was buried in Chicago's Graceland Cemetery. He had become known as an advocate for medical and nursing training and medical care for black people, and for being an incredibly talented surgeon who charged people what they could afford to pay him. He took risks, and he attempted surgeries that he didn't know of anybody else trying before. And he had a reputation for going to great links to try to treat people's limbs rather than amputating them. But he also did not do surgeries if he knew that they would not be successful, and he didn't give people treatments that he didn't think they needed. If he decided someone was too sick or too badly injured to survive a surgery, he would stay with them until they died. In the words of biographer Helen Buckler, quote, it was as though in the sickroom, and only in the sickroom, could doctor Dan be a whole man, a man of feeling as well as a man of science and intellect. Here emotions buried deep by pride and circumstance were set free. Provident Hospital moved into a much bigger building on East fifty first Street in nineteen thirty three. This was followed by construction of an outpatient building, and two apartment buildings were purchased as housing for nursing students. But the hospital faced periods of financial struggle, especially in times of more widespread economic downturns. This included serious financial problems in the nineteen eighties, and the hospital was closed in nineteen eighty seven. It was acquired by the Cook County Board of Commissioners in nineteen ninety one and reopened in nineteen ninety three. It is now Provident Hospital of Cook County in Chicago and is affiliated with Loyola University's Stritch School of Medicine. Most of the hospitals that were established during the Black Hospital movement closed or merged with other hospitals after the Civil Rights Act of nineteen sixty four and the establishment of Medicare and Medicaid the following year. Hospitals accepting Medicare and Medicaid funding were required to comply with the Civil Rights Acts outlawing of racial discrimination. This was a huge part of desegregating the medical system. Desegregation gave black patients access to care that they might not have been able to access otherwise, but the loss of these hospitals could also be devastating to the communities where they had been operating. Many of them were major employers in their neighborhoods and also sources of civic pride and just major community resources. And of course, the desegregation of the medical system in the US did not allow eliminate medical racism, and there are ongoing disparities and access to medical care and outcomes across a lot of the country today and that is Daniel Hale Williams.

A lot of the time he was doing surgeries that the students really didn't have other opportunities to see. They were often very complicated or uncommon procedures. He was known for operating incredibly skillfully and also very quickly given the limitations of general anesthesia at the time. He was also continually pushing himself as a surgeon, and he was also breaking new ground in the field. In nineteen oh two, he became one of the first surgeons to successfully repair a traumatic hemorrhage in a spleen. At the time, it was more common to remove the spleen than to try to repair it. There had been at least one successful surgical spleen repair before this, but Williams did not know about it. In nineteen twelve, while he was still working at Provident Hospital, Williams also became associate attending surgeon at Saint Luke's Hospital in Chicago, but the following year he resigned from Provident. There are kind of multiple conflicting stories about why what is that Providence bore passed a policy that surgeons who worked at Provident could only work at Provident. That was a policy that was probably written to target Williams, and it might also have been connected to the ongoing animosity with George Cleveland Hall. It's also possible that Williams felt like Provident was no longer really aligned with his original vision for it. He had established it in order to train black nurses and to provide a place that would accept black patients and where black doctors could work. He had also helped to establish the National Medical Association since black doctors were being excluded from the American Medical Association, but he had wanted Provident to specifically be integrated and to provide connections between the white and black medical communities in Chicago. Over time, Providence staff had become less and less integrated and more predominantly black, and that was part of an increasing pattern of racial segregation in Chicago more generally. Williams kept working at Saint Luke's as well as teaching and consulting. Former students and colleagues would write to him for help and advice, and sometimes when his former students' patients did not have access to a hospital that would admit them, he would still perform surgery in their homes. He also continued to advocate for the establishment of black owned hospitals that would benefit black patients and doctors alike. He helped establish at least forty hospitals that were open to black patients. In nineteen thirteen, Williams also became the only black founding member of the American College of Surgeons, which got its second black member twenty one years later. Dan's wife, Alice, developed Parkinson's disease and died in nineteen twenty four. They were married until her death, but their relationship had become more strained after d had an affair years before. Daniel Hale Williams moved to northern Michigan. In nineteen twenty six, he was partially paralyzed after a stroke. He died on August fourth, nineteen thirty one, at the age of seventy five, and he was buried in Chicago's Graceland Cemetery. He had become known as an advocate for medical and nursing training and medical care for black people, and for being an incredibly talented surgeon who charged people what they could afford to pay him. He took risks, and he attempted surgeries that he didn't know of anybody else trying before. And he had a reputation for going to great links to try to treat people's limbs rather than amputating them. But he also did not do surgeries if he knew that they would not be successful, and he didn't give people treatments that he didn't think they needed. If he decided someone was too sick or too badly injured to survive a surgery, he would stay with them until they died. In the words of biographer Helen Buckler, quote, it was as though in the sickroom, and only in the sickroom, could doctor Dan be a whole man, a man of feeling as well as a man of science and intellect. Here emotions buried deep by pride and circumstance were set free. Provident Hospital moved into a much bigger building on East fifty first Street in nineteen thirty three. This was followed by construction of an outpatient building, and two apartment buildings were purchased as housing for nursing students. But the hospital faced periods of financial struggle, especially in times of more widespread economic downturns. This included serious financial problems in the nineteen eighties, and the hospital was closed in nineteen eighty seven. It was acquired by the Cook County Board of Commissioners in nineteen ninety one and reopened in nineteen ninety three. It is now Provident Hospital of Cook County in Chicago and is affiliated with Loyola University's Stritch School of Medicine. Most of the hospitals that were established during the Black Hospital movement closed or merged with other hospitals after the Civil Rights Act of nineteen sixty four and the establishment of Medicare and Medicaid the following year. Hospitals accepting Medicare and Medicaid funding were required to comply with the Civil Rights Acts outlawing of racial discrimination. This was a huge part of desegregating the medical system. Desegregation gave black patients access to care that they might not have been able to access otherwise, but the loss of these hospitals could also be devastating to the communities where they had been operating. Many of them were major employers in their neighborhoods and also sources of civic pride and just major community resources. And of course, the desegregation of the medical system in the US did not allow eliminate medical racism, and there are ongoing disparities and access to medical care and outcomes across a lot of the country today and that is Daniel Hale Williams.

Do you also have some listener mail for us?

Do you also have some listener mail for us?

I do have listener mail.

I do have listener mail.

This is from Caitlin who wrote, Hi, Tracy and Holly. I'm always delighted by the Unearthed episodes and this set with no exception. I especially appreciated the let's recreate this artifact from antiquity to see if we can use it as hypothesized item variety. How do I get a job checking a javelin from various heights on a scissor lift. I'm a grad student who teaches undergrads as part of my program, and this semester, I'm leading a historical research methodology course where we're showing students how to do archival research by working on a group project. Coincidentally, the day before the first class, an interstate construction project turned up an archaeologically significant find, a series of privy pits their thought to date to the construction of the Erie Canal. The archaeologist interviewed for the article I read was so incredibly excited about the chance to learn from the unearthed artifacts that had been rescued before the construction resumed. I shared this with my students as an example of how local history can be. I waxed rhapsodic about the potential discoveries for a few moments before one of my students raised his hand and said, wait, isn't a privy just a toilet? What's important about poop? Bless his heart, he didn't know how deep my repertoire of factoids and tidbits on Latrine's privy, septic systems, dumps, and so on is. Thanks Unearthed, Thank you as always for all you do. I look forward to the new episodes every week and am constantly re listening to favorites from the back catalog.

This is from Caitlin who wrote, Hi, Tracy and Holly. I'm always delighted by the Unearthed episodes and this set with no exception. I especially appreciated the let's recreate this artifact from antiquity to see if we can use it as hypothesized item variety. How do I get a job checking a javelin from various heights on a scissor lift. I'm a grad student who teaches undergrads as part of my program, and this semester, I'm leading a historical research methodology course where we're showing students how to do archival research by working on a group project. Coincidentally, the day before the first class, an interstate construction project turned up an archaeologically significant find, a series of privy pits their thought to date to the construction of the Erie Canal. The archaeologist interviewed for the article I read was so incredibly excited about the chance to learn from the unearthed artifacts that had been rescued before the construction resumed. I shared this with my students as an example of how local history can be. I waxed rhapsodic about the potential discoveries for a few moments before one of my students raised his hand and said, wait, isn't a privy just a toilet? What's important about poop? Bless his heart, he didn't know how deep my repertoire of factoids and tidbits on Latrine's privy, septic systems, dumps, and so on is. Thanks Unearthed, Thank you as always for all you do. I look forward to the new episodes every week and am constantly re listening to favorites from the back catalog.

Best Caitlin.

Best Caitlin.

Thank you so much Caitlin for this email, and thank you for your past emails. Caitlin is another frequent correspondent, and I loved this bit about the privies. The discoveries I thought of first connected to the privies were the ones that we've talked about that are all about how the Roman Empire was full of parasites, and wherever the Romans went, they took the parasites with the riddled with Romans. I also think in earlier years of doing Unearthed, we had a lot of discoveries that came from middens which were basically trash dumps. And I don't think I can remember a very recent midden discovery. Maybe there has been, I don't know, but anyway, thank you again, Caitlin for this email. If you would like to send us a note about this or any other podcast where at history podcasts at iHeartRadio dot com, and you can subscribe to our show on the iHeartRadio app or anywhere else you'd like to get your podcasts.

Thank you so much Caitlin for this email, and thank you for your past emails. Caitlin is another frequent correspondent, and I loved this bit about the privies. The discoveries I thought of first connected to the privies were the ones that we've talked about that are all about how the Roman Empire was full of parasites, and wherever the Romans went, they took the parasites with the riddled with Romans. I also think in earlier years of doing Unearthed, we had a lot of discoveries that came from middens which were basically trash dumps. And I don't think I can remember a very recent midden discovery. Maybe there has been, I don't know, but anyway, thank you again, Caitlin for this email. If you would like to send us a note about this or any other podcast where at history podcasts at iHeartRadio dot com, and you can subscribe to our show on the iHeartRadio app or anywhere else you'd like to get your podcasts.

Stuff you missed in History Class is a production of iHeartRadio.

Stuff you missed in History Class is a production of iHeartRadio.

For more podcasts from iHeartRadio, visit the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you

For more podcasts from iHeartRadio, visit the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you

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