Charles Nessler is usually credited with inventing the permanent wave in the early 1900s. And he made a huge fortune from it, while also bolstering a huge beauty industry.

Research:
Bedi, Joyce. “GERMANY | Charles (Karl) Nessler.” Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and Innovation. Smithsonian National Museum of American History. June 3, 2021. https://invention.si.edu/node/29205/p/732-germany-charles-karl-nessler
Hellman, Geoffrey T. “Profiles: Hair Scientist.” The New Yorker. April 29, 1933. https://archives.newyorker.com/newyorker/1933-04-29/flipbook/020/
Larkin, Theresa. “From straight to curly, thick to thin: Here's how hormones and chemotherapy can change your hair.” MedicalExpress. Jan. 14, 2024. https://medicalxpress.com/news/2024-01-straight-curly-thick-thin-hormones.html
“115 Years of Long-Lasting Curls: The History and Rebirth of the Perm.” Estetica Magazine. Feb. 8, 2022. https://www.esteticamagazine.com/2022/02/08/111-years-of-long-lasting-curls-the-history-and-rebirth-of-the-perm/
Marsden, Rhodri. “Rhodri Marsden's Interesting Objects: The Nessler Permanent Wave Machine.” The Independent. Oct. 9, 2015. https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/fashion/features/rhodri-marsden-s-interesting-objects-the-nessler-permanent-wave-machine-a6674081.html
“Modern Living: The Great Wave.” Time. Feb. 5, 1951. https://time.com/archive/6825188/modern-living-the-great-wave/
Morton, Ella. “The Alarming Aesthetics of Jazz Age Perm Machines.” Atlas Obscura. Aug. 2, 2016. https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/the-alarming-aesthetics-of-jazz-age-perm-machines
Nessler, Charles. “The Story of Hair.” New York. Bonni and Liveright. 1928.
Nessler, Charles. “A New or Improved Method of and Means for the Manufacture of Artificial Eyebrows, Eyelashes and the like.” UK Patent Office. Accessed via Google: https://patents.google.com/patent/GB190218723A/en
“Nessler, Invented Permanent Wave.” New York Times. January 24, 1951. https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1951/01/24/88426426.pdf?pdf_redirect=true&ip=0
“A Revolutionst Dies.” Life Magazine. Feb. 5, 1951. Accessed online: https://books.google.com/books?id=50sEAAAAMBAJ&q=nestler#v=onepage&q=nessler&f=false
Sheen, Maureen. “Story of Us, 1910-1920: Do the Wave.” American Salon. Jan. 20, 2016. https://www.americansalon.com/products/story-us-1910-1920-do-wave

Charles Nessler is usually credited with inventing the permanent wave in the early 1900s. And he made a huge fortune from it, while also bolstering a huge beauty industry.
Research:
<ul>
<li>Bedi, Joyce. “GERMANY | Charles (Karl) Nessler.” Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and Innovation. Smithsonian National Museum of American History. June 3, 2021. https://invention.si.edu/node/29205/p/732-germany-charles-karl-nessler</li>
<li>Hellman, Geoffrey T. “Profiles: Hair Scientist.” The New Yorker. April 29, 1933. https://archives.newyorker.com/newyorker/1933-04-29/flipbook/020/</li>
<li>Larkin, Theresa. “From straight to curly, thick to thin: Here's how hormones and chemotherapy can change your hair.” MedicalExpress. Jan. 14, 2024. https://medicalxpress.com/news/2024-01-straight-curly-thick-thin-hormones.html</li>
<li>“115 Years of Long-Lasting Curls: The History and Rebirth of the Perm.” Estetica Magazine. Feb. 8, 2022. https://www.esteticamagazine.com/2022/02/08/111-years-of-long-lasting-curls-the-history-and-rebirth-of-the-perm/</li>
<li>Marsden, Rhodri. “Rhodri Marsden's Interesting Objects: The Nessler Permanent Wave Machine.” The Independent. Oct. 9, 2015. https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/fashion/features/rhodri-marsden-s-interesting-objects-the-nessler-permanent-wave-machine-a6674081.html</li>
<li>“Modern Living: The Great Wave.” Time. Feb. 5, 1951. https://time.com/archive/6825188/modern-living-the-great-wave/</li>
<li>Morton, Ella. “The Alarming Aesthetics of Jazz Age Perm Machines.” Atlas Obscura. Aug. 2, 2016. https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/the-alarming-aesthetics-of-jazz-age-perm-machines</li>
<li>Nessler, Charles. “The Story of Hair.” New York. Bonni and Liveright. 1928.</li>
<li>Nessler, Charles. “A New or Improved Method of and Means for the Manufacture of Artificial Eyebrows, Eyelashes and the like.” UK Patent Office. Accessed via Google: https://patents.google.com/patent/GB190218723A/en</li>
<li>“Nessler, Invented Permanent Wave.” New York Times. January 24, 1951. https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1951/01/24/88426426.pdf?pdf_redirect=true&amp;ip=0</li>
<li>“A Revolutionst Dies.” Life Magazine. Feb. 5, 1951. Accessed online: https://books.google.com/books?id=50sEAAAAMBAJ&amp;q=nestler#v=onepage&amp;q=nessler&amp;f=false</li>
<li>Sheen, Maureen. “Story of Us, 1910-1920: Do the Wave.” American Salon. Jan. 20, 2016. https://www.americansalon.com/products/story-us-1910-1920-do-wave</li>
</ul>

Join Holly and Tracy as they bring you the greatest and strangest Stuff You Missed In History Class in this podcast by iHeartRadio.

Stuff You Missed in History Class

Charles Nessler’s Permanent Waves

https://api.omny.fm/orgs/e73c998e-6e60-432f-8610-ae210140c5b1/clips/7882a1fd-b17d-49c3-bf5b-b1c80159261a/transcript

Holly talks about the lack information about Pinel’s family, and how much she’d like to see Oscar Wilde use social media. Tracy discusses the way the Cooley episode narrowed down the scope of her originally planned topic.

Holly talks about the lack information about Pinel&rsquo;s family, and how much she&rsquo;d like to see Oscar Wilde use social media. Tracy discusses the way the Cooley episode narrowed down the scope of her originally planned topic.

Behind the Scenes Minis: Progressive Medicine

https://api.omny.fm/orgs/e73c998e-6e60-432f-8610-ae210140c5b1/clips/609c4640-48f8-4c70-93b1-b4c700e201eb/transcript

William B. Coley started using a bacterial infection to treat cancers in the late 19th century, one of the earliest uses of immunotherapy.

Research:
Ahuja, Sana and Sufian Zaheer. “The evolution of cancer immunotherapy: a comprehensive review of its history and current perspectives.” Korean Journal of Clinical Oncology 2024; 20(2): 51-73. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14216/kjco.24009
Atkins, Douglas. “Helen Coley Nauts: Advocate for Immunotherapy.” National Library of Medicine. 4/19/2016. https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2016/04/19/helen-coley-nauts-advocate-for-immunotherapy/
Cancer Research Institute. “The History of Cancer Immunotherapy.”
Coley, William B. “Therapeutic Value of the Mixed Toxins of the Streptococcus of Erysipelas and Bacillus Prodigiosus in the Treatment of Inoperable Malignant Tumors. With a Report of 160 Cases.” American Journal of the Medical Sciences. September 1896.
College of Physicians of Philadelphia. “Cancer Vaccines and Immunotherapy.” History of Vaccines. https://historyofvaccines.org/vaccines-101/future-immunization/cancer-vaccines-and-immunotherapy/
Colley, William B. “The Treatment of Inoperable Sarcoma by Bacterial Toxins (the Mixed Toxins of the Streptococcus erysipelas and the Bacillus prodigiosus).” Reprinted from the “ Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine,” November, 1909. London. John Bale, Sons & Danielsson, LTD. 1909. https://archive.org/details/b22425949/mode/1up
Decker WK, da Silva RF, Sanabria MH, Angelo LS, Guimarães F, Burt BM, Kheradmand F and Paust S (2017) Cancer Immunotherapy: Historical Perspective of a Clinical Revolution and Emerging Preclinical Animal Models. Front. Immunol. 8:829. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00829
Devaraja, K. et al. “Coley’s Toxin to First Approved Therapeutic Vaccine—A Brief Historical Account in the Progression of Immunobiology-Based Cancer Treatment.” Biomedicines 2024, 12, 2746. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines12122746
Dobosz, Paula and Tomasz Dzieciatkowski.” The Intriguing History of Cancer Immunotherapy. Frontiers in Immunology. 12/17/2019. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02965
Hall, Stephen S. “A Commotion in the Blood: Life, Death, and the Immune System.” Henry Holt and Company. Excerpted at New York Times. https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/first/h/hall-commotion.html 
Harutyunyan, Mariam. “How William Coley Became The Father of Cancer Immunotherapy.” OncoDaily Magazine. 7/31/2026. https://oncodaily.com/magazine/william-coley-549446
Hiroaki Ikeda, Cancer immunotherapy in progress—an overview of the past 130 years, International Immunology, Volume 37, Issue 5, May 2025, Pages 253–260, https://doi.org/10.1093/intimm/dxaf002
Journal of the American Medical Association. “Erysipelas Toxins in the Treatment of Malignant Tumors.” 10/27/1894.
Journal of the American Medical Association. “The Failure of the Erysipelas Toxins.” Vol 23 Iss 24. 12/15/1894.
Kokolus, Katie. “The History of Immunotherapy: Toxins, Targets & T Cells.” LabRoots. 10/18/2021. https://www.labroots.com/trending/cancer/21449/history-immunotherapy-toxins-targets-cells?srsltid=AfmBOooP1eoVP2LbWKR5m-HLu1PSBFhOyPH1jSJWWcxvyK6EA4-hBu47
Levine, David B. “The Hospital for the Ruptured and Crippled: William Bradley Coley, third Surgeon-in-Chief 1925-1933.” HSS journal : the musculoskeletal journal of Hospital for Special Surgery vol. 4,1 (2008): 1-9. doi:10.1007/s11420-007-9063-2
McCarthy, Edward F. “The Toxins of William B. Coley and the Treatment of Bone and Soft-tissue Sarcomas.” The Iowa Orthopaedic Journal. Vol. 26.
Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. “MSK Immunotherapy — Timeline of Progress.” https://www.mskcc.org/timeline/immunotherapy-msk
National Library of Medicine. “Harnessing the Power of You: The History of Immunotherapy.” https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/the-history-of-immunotherapy/index.html
Nauts, Helen Coley. “Coley’s Toxins – The First Century.” Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients. June 2004.
Nawrat, Allie. “Charting the history of immunotherapy, cancer treatment’s fourth pillar.” Pharmaceutical Technology. 7/28/2020. https://www.pharmaceutical-technology.com/features/charting-the-history-of-immunotherapy-cancer-treatments-fourth-pillar/?cf-view&cf-closed
Oiseth SJ, Aziz MS. “Cancer immunotherapy: a brief review of the history, possibilities, and challenges ahead.” J Cancer Metastasis Treat. 2017;3:250-61. http://dx.doi.org/10.20517/2394-4722.2017.41
Tontonoz, Matthew. “What Ever Happened to Coley’s Toxins?.” Cancer Research Institute. 4/2/2015. https://www.cancerresearch.org/blog/what-ever-happened-to-coleys-toxins

William B. Coley started using a bacterial infection to treat cancers in the late 19th century, one of the earliest uses of immunotherapy.
Research:
<ul>
<li>Ahuja, Sana and Sufian Zaheer. &ldquo;The evolution of cancer immunotherapy: a comprehensive review of its history and current perspectives.&rdquo; Korean Journal of Clinical Oncology 2024; 20(2): 51-73. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14216/kjco.24009</li>
<li>Atkins, Douglas. &ldquo;Helen Coley Nauts: Advocate for Immunotherapy.&rdquo; National Library of Medicine. 4/19/2016. https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2016/04/19/helen-coley-nauts-advocate-for-immunotherapy/</li>
<li>Cancer Research Institute. &ldquo;The History of Cancer Immunotherapy.&rdquo;</li>
<li>Coley, William B. &ldquo;Therapeutic Value of the Mixed Toxins of the Streptococcus of Erysipelas and Bacillus Prodigiosus in the Treatment of Inoperable Malignant Tumors. With a Report of 160 Cases.&rdquo; American Journal of the Medical Sciences. September 1896.</li>
<li>College of Physicians of Philadelphia. &ldquo;Cancer Vaccines and Immunotherapy.&rdquo; History of Vaccines. https://historyofvaccines.org/vaccines-101/future-immunization/cancer-vaccines-and-immunotherapy/</li>
<li>Colley, William B. &ldquo;The Treatment of Inoperable Sarcoma by Bacterial Toxins (the Mixed Toxins of the Streptococcus erysipelas and the Bacillus prodigiosus).&rdquo; Reprinted from the &ldquo; Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine,&rdquo; November, 1909. London. John Bale, Sons &amp; Danielsson, LTD. 1909. https://archive.org/details/b22425949/mode/1up</li>
<li>Decker WK, da Silva RF, Sanabria MH, Angelo LS, Guimar&atilde;es F, Burt BM, Kheradmand F and Paust S (2017) Cancer Immunotherapy: Historical Perspective of a Clinical Revolution and Emerging Preclinical Animal Models. Front. Immunol. 8:829. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00829</li>
<li>Devaraja, K. et al. &ldquo;Coley&rsquo;s Toxin to First Approved Therapeutic Vaccine&mdash;A Brief Historical Account in the Progression of Immunobiology-Based Cancer Treatment.&rdquo; Biomedicines 2024, 12, 2746. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines12122746</li>
<li>Dobosz, Paula and Tomasz Dzieciatkowski.&rdquo; The Intriguing History of Cancer Immunotherapy. Frontiers in Immunology. 12/17/2019. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02965</li>
<li>Hall, Stephen S. &ldquo;A Commotion in the Blood: Life, Death, and the Immune System.&rdquo; Henry Holt and Company. Excerpted at New York Times. https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/first/h/hall-commotion.html&nbsp;</li>
<li>Harutyunyan, Mariam. &ldquo;How William Coley Became The Father of Cancer Immunotherapy.&rdquo; OncoDaily Magazine. 7/31/2026. https://oncodaily.com/magazine/william-coley-549446</li>
<li>Hiroaki Ikeda, Cancer immunotherapy in progress&mdash;an overview of the past 130 years, International Immunology, Volume 37, Issue 5, May 2025, Pages 253&ndash;260, https://doi.org/10.1093/intimm/dxaf002</li>
<li>Journal of the American Medical Association. &ldquo;Erysipelas Toxins in the Treatment of Malignant Tumors.&rdquo; 10/27/1894.</li>
<li>Journal of the American Medical Association. &ldquo;The Failure of the Erysipelas Toxins.&rdquo; Vol 23 Iss 24. 12/15/1894.</li>
<li>Kokolus, Katie. &ldquo;The History of Immunotherapy: Toxins, Targets &amp; T Cells.&rdquo; LabRoots. 10/18/2021. https://www.labroots.com/trending/cancer/21449/history-immunotherapy-toxins-targets-cells?srsltid=AfmBOooP1eoVP2LbWKR5m-HLu1PSBFhOyPH1jSJWWcxvyK6EA4-hBu47</li>
<li>Levine, David B. &ldquo;The Hospital for the Ruptured and Crippled: William Bradley Coley, third Surgeon-in-Chief 1925-1933.&rdquo; HSS journal : the musculoskeletal journal of Hospital for Special Surgery vol. 4,1 (2008): 1-9. doi:10.1007/s11420-007-9063-2</li>
<li>McCarthy, Edward F. &ldquo;The Toxins of William B. Coley and the Treatment of Bone and Soft-tissue Sarcomas.&rdquo; The Iowa Orthopaedic Journal. Vol. 26.</li>
<li>Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. &ldquo;MSK Immunotherapy &mdash; Timeline of Progress.&rdquo; https://www.mskcc.org/timeline/immunotherapy-msk</li>
<li>National Library of Medicine. &ldquo;Harnessing the Power of You: The History of Immunotherapy.&rdquo; https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/the-history-of-immunotherapy/index.html</li>
<li>Nauts, Helen Coley. &ldquo;Coley&rsquo;s Toxins &ndash; The First Century.&rdquo; Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients. June 2004.</li>
<li>Nawrat, Allie. &ldquo;Charting the history of immunotherapy, cancer treatment&rsquo;s fourth pillar.&rdquo; Pharmaceutical Technology. 7/28/2020. https://www.pharmaceutical-technology.com/features/charting-the-history-of-immunotherapy-cancer-treatments-fourth-pillar/?cf-view&amp;cf-closed</li>
<li>Oiseth SJ, Aziz MS. &ldquo;Cancer immunotherapy: a brief review of the history, possibilities, and challenges ahead.&rdquo; J Cancer Metastasis Treat. 2017;3:250-61. http://dx.doi.org/10.20517/2394-4722.2017.41</li>
<li>Tontonoz, Matthew. &ldquo;What Ever Happened to Coley&rsquo;s Toxins?.&rdquo; Cancer Research Institute. 4/2/2015. https://www.cancerresearch.org/blog/what-ever-happened-to-coleys-toxins</li>
</ul>

William B. Coley started using a bacterial infection to treat cancers in the late 19th century, one of the earliest uses of immunotherapy.

Coley's Toxins and the Origins of Immunotherapy

https://api.omny.fm/orgs/e73c998e-6e60-432f-8610-ae210140c5b1/clips/9d1516b8-8728-4243-8c15-b4c60112fc64/transcript

Pinel’s work is considered the precursor to psychiatry. In the late 18th century, he overhauled the asylum system of Paris with his groundbreaking ideas about mental health.

Research:
Bicêtre Hospital. https://hopital-bicetre.aphp.fr/lhopital 
Boullerne, A.I., et al. “The origins and early history of neurochemistry and its societies.” Journal of Neurochemistry. 152: 8-28. 2020.  https://doi.org/10.1111/jnc.14839  
Chambers, William. “Chambers' Edinburgh journal.” Vol. 11-132. 1849. London. William Orr. https://archive.org/details/chambersedinburg1112cham/page/n179/mode/2up 
Charland, Louis C. 2018. “Lost in Myth, Lost in Translation: Philippe Pinel’s 1809 Medico-Philosophical Treatise on Mental Alienation.” International Journal of Mental Health 47 (3): 245–49. doi:10.1080/00207411.2018.1483053. 
Gallaher, John G. and Paul Stewart. “Fall of Robespierre.” EBSCO. 2023. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/fall-robespierre 
Hewitt, Jessie. “Gender and the Founding ‘Fathers’ of French Psychiatry.” Institutionalizing Gender: Madness, the Family, and Psychiatric Power in Nineteenth-Century France, Cornell University Press, 2020, pp. 19–42. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctv136c5pw.5 
Huneman, Philippe. “Writing the Case—Pinel as Psychiatrist.” Republics of Letters: A Journal for the Study of Knowledge, Politics, and the Arts 3, no. 2 ( January 15, 2014): http://arcade.stanford.edu/rofl/writing-case -pinel-psychiatrist. 
KAVKA, JEROME. “PINEL’S CONCEPTION OF THE PSYCHOPATHIC STATE: An Historical Critique.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine, vol. 23, no. 5, 1949, pp. 461–68. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44442272 
Kendler, Kenneth S. “Philippe Pinel and the foundations of modern psychiatric nosology.” Psychological medicine vol. 50,16 (2020): 2667-2672. doi:10.1017/S0033291720004183 
Lakritz, Kenneth, MD. “Michel Foucault’s Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason.” Psychiatric Times. Vol. 26, no. 6. June 4, 2009. https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/michel-foucaults-madness-and-civilization-history-insanity-age-reason 
Paradowski, Robert J., PhD. “Philippe Pinel.” EBSCO. 2024. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/health-and-medicine/philippe-pinel 
Pearce, J.M.S. “The beginnings of humane psychiatry: Pinel and the Tukes.” Hektoen International. June 4, 2020. https://hekint.org/2020/06/04/the-beginnings-of-humane-psychiatry-pinel-and-the-tukes/ 
Pinel, Philippe. Tr. by Gordon Hickish, David Healy, Louis C. Charland. “MEDICO-PHILOSOPHICAL TREATISE ON MENTAL ALIENATION.” Wiley-Blackwell. 2008. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/9780470712238.fmatter 
Pinel, Philippe. “A Treatise on Insanity … “ Sheffield. W. Todd. 1806. https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_4snWNO1lETAC/page/n7/mode/2up 
Pinel, Philippe. “A Treatise on Insanity.” New York : Published under the auspices of the Library of the New York Academy of Medicine by Hafner Pub. Co. 1962. Accessed online: https://archive.org/details/treatiseoninsani0000pine/page/n1/mode/2up 
Weiner, D B. “Philippe Pinel's "Memoir on Madness" of December 11, 1794: a fundamental text of modern psychiatry.” The American journal of psychiatry. vol. 149,6 (1992): 725-32. doi:10.1176/ajp.149.6.725 
Weissmann, Gerald. “Citizen Pinel and the Madman at Bellevue.” The FASEB Journal. May 1, 2008. https://faseb.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1096/fj.08-0501ufm 
WILLIAMS, ELIZABETH A. “Stomach and Psyche: Eating, Digestion, and Mental Illness in the Medicine of Philippe Pinel.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine, vol. 84, no. 3, 2010, pp. 358–86. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44448968 
WOODS, EVELYN A., and ERIC T. CARLSON. “THE PSYCHIATRY OF PHILIPPE PINEL.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine, vol. 35, no. 1, 1961, pp. 14–25. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44446761

Pinel&rsquo;s work is considered the precursor to psychiatry. In the late 18th century, he overhauled the asylum system of Paris with his groundbreaking ideas about mental health.
Research:
<ul>
<li>Bic&ecirc;tre Hospital. https://hopital-bicetre.aphp.fr/lhopital&nbsp;</li>
<li>Boullerne, A.I., et al. &ldquo;The origins and early history of neurochemistry and its societies.&rdquo; Journal of Neurochemistry.&nbsp;152: 8-28. 2020.  https://doi.org/10.1111/jnc.14839&nbsp;&nbsp;</li>
<li>Chambers, William. &ldquo;Chambers' Edinburgh journal.&rdquo; Vol. 11-132. 1849. London. William Orr. https://archive.org/details/chambersedinburg1112cham/page/n179/mode/2up&nbsp;</li>
<li>Charland, Louis C. 2018. &ldquo;Lost in Myth, Lost in Translation: Philippe Pinel&rsquo;s 1809 Medico-Philosophical Treatise&nbsp;on Mental Alienation.&rdquo; International Journal of Mental Health 47 (3): 245&ndash;49. doi:10.1080/00207411.2018.1483053.&nbsp;</li>
<li>Gallaher, John G. and Paul Stewart. &ldquo;Fall of Robespierre.&rdquo; EBSCO. 2023. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/fall-robespierre&nbsp;</li>
<li>Hewitt, Jessie. &ldquo;Gender and the Founding &lsquo;Fathers&rsquo; of French Psychiatry.&rdquo; Institutionalizing Gender: Madness,&nbsp;the Family, and Psychiatric Power in Nineteenth-Century France, Cornell University Press, 2020, pp. 19&ndash;42. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctv136c5pw.5&nbsp;</li>
<li>Huneman, Philippe. &ldquo;Writing the Case&mdash;Pinel as Psychiatrist.&rdquo; Republics of Letters: A Journal for the Study&nbsp;of Knowledge, Politics, and the Arts 3, no. 2 ( January 15, 2014): http://arcade.stanford.edu/rofl/writing-case -pinel-psychiatrist.&nbsp;</li>
<li>KAVKA, JEROME. &ldquo;PINEL&rsquo;S CONCEPTION OF THE PSYCHOPATHIC STATE: An Historical Critique.&rdquo; Bulletin of the History&nbsp;of Medicine, vol. 23, no. 5, 1949, pp. 461&ndash;68. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44442272&nbsp;</li>
<li>Kendler, Kenneth S. &ldquo;Philippe Pinel and the foundations of modern psychiatric nosology.&rdquo; Psychological medicine vol.&nbsp;50,16 (2020): <a href="tel:2667-2672">2667-2672</a>. doi:10.1017/S0033291720004183&nbsp;</li>
<li>Lakritz, Kenneth, MD. &ldquo;Michel Foucault&rsquo;s Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason.&rdquo;&nbsp;Psychiatric Times. Vol. 26, no. 6. June 4, 2009. https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/michel-foucaults-madness-and-civilization-history-insanity-age-reason&nbsp;</li>
<li>Paradowski, Robert J., PhD. &ldquo;Philippe Pinel.&rdquo; EBSCO. 2024. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/health-and-medicine/philippe-pinel&nbsp;</li>
<li>Pearce, J.M.S. &ldquo;The beginnings of humane psychiatry: Pinel and the Tukes.&rdquo; Hektoen International. June 4,&nbsp;2020. https://hekint.org/2020/06/04/the-beginnings-of-humane-psychiatry-pinel-and-the-tukes/&nbsp;</li>
<li>Pinel, Philippe. Tr. by Gordon Hickish, David Healy, Louis C. Charland. &ldquo;MEDICO-PHILOSOPHICAL TREATISE ON MENTAL ALIENATION.&rdquo; Wiley-Blackwell. 2008. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/9780470712238.fmatter&nbsp;</li>
<li>Pinel, Philippe. &ldquo;A Treatise on Insanity &hellip; &ldquo; Sheffield. W. Todd. 1806. https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_4snWNO1lETAC/page/n7/mode/2up&nbsp;</li>
<li>Pinel, Philippe. &ldquo;A Treatise on Insanity.&rdquo; New York : Published under the auspices of the Library of the New&nbsp;York Academy of Medicine by Hafner Pub. Co. 1962. Accessed online: https://archive.org/details/treatiseoninsani0000pine/page/n1/mode/2up&nbsp;</li>
<li>Weiner, D B. &ldquo;Philippe Pinel's "Memoir on Madness" of December 11, 1794: a fundamental text of modern psychiatry.&rdquo; The&nbsp;American journal of psychiatry. vol. 149,6 (1992): 725-32. doi:10.1176/ajp.149.6.725&nbsp;</li>
<li>Weissmann, Gerald. &ldquo;Citizen Pinel and the Madman at Bellevue.&rdquo; The FASEB Journal. May 1, 2008.&nbsp;https://faseb.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1096/fj.08-0501ufm&nbsp;</li>
<li>WILLIAMS, ELIZABETH A. &ldquo;Stomach and Psyche: Eating, Digestion, and Mental Illness in the Medicine of Philippe&nbsp;Pinel.&rdquo; Bulletin of the History of Medicine, vol. 84, no. 3, 2010, pp. 358&ndash;86. JSTOR,&nbsp;http://www.jstor.org/stable/44448968&nbsp;</li>
<li>WOODS, EVELYN A., and ERIC T. CARLSON. &ldquo;THE PSYCHIATRY OF PHILIPPE PINEL.&rdquo; Bulletin of the History of Medicine,&nbsp;vol. 35, no. 1, 1961, pp. 14&ndash;25. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44446761</li>
</ul>

Pinel’s work is considered the precursor to psychiatry. In the late 18th century, he overhauled the asylum system of Paris with his groundbreaking ideas about mental health. 

Philippe Pinel

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