A three-inch baboon bone bearing twenty-nine deliberate incisions was pulled from a South African mountain range in 1970. It is approximately 43,000 years old, and microscopic analysis shows the notches were made over time with different cutting tools, meaning someone was tracking something and coming back to update the record. It is the oldest known dataset in the world. Twenty thousand miles away and twenty thousand years later, temple administrators in Mesopotamia were pressing small clay tokens into wet clay to record quantities of grain and livestock, and in doing so they accidentally invented writing. Both were doing the same thing: turning observations into symbols that could outlast the observer. Both were creating data. And both were laying the foundation for every census, ledger, algorithm, and surveillance system that followed.

Today's guest is Roopika Risam, author of Data Empire: The Power of Information to Organize, Control, and Dominate. We discuss how the Bronze Age collapsed in part because its diplomatic information network couldn't transmit clay tablets fast enough to coordinate a response to simultaneous crises, how Phoenician miners who couldn't read hieroglyphics invented the alphabet out of necessity in a Sinai desert mine, and why Qin Shi Huang's true immortality was not his terracotta army but his bureaucracy, the first government to treat data verification as a core function of the state. We look at how Herman Hollerith's punch card tabulator for the 1890 census became IBM and made human identity machine-readable. Risam argues that the digital age did not create data's power but inherited it, and that every algorithm processing our lives today carries the DNA of 43,000 years of counting, classifying, and controlling.